РЕЧЕВАЯ КОМПРЕССИЯ В СИНХРОННОМ ПЕРЕВОДЕ С РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА НА АНГЛИЙСКИЙ (НА МАТЕРИАЛЕ ВЫСТУПЛЕНИЙ В. В. ПУТИНА)

РЕЧЕВАЯ КОМПРЕССИЯ В СИНХРОННОМ ПЕРЕВОДЕ С РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА НА АНГЛИЙСКИЙ (НА МАТЕРИАЛЕ ВЫСТУПЛЕНИЙ В. В. ПУТИНА)

Научная статья

Пивень (Никитина) И.В.^{1, *}, Логинова А.А.²

¹ ORCID: 0000-0002-2916-6659;

² ORCID: 0000-0002-1022-2243;

^{1, 2} Нижегородский государственный лингвистический университет им. Н.А. Добролюбова, Нижний Новгород, Россия

* Корреспондирующий автор (irene.nikitina[at]gmail.com)

Аннотация

Цель настоящей статьи состоит в рассмотрении факторов речевой компрессии в синхронном переводе с русского языка на английский, а также способов ее применения на материале выступлений В.В. Путина на «Давосской повестке 2021» и пресс-конференции в Женеве в июне 2021 г. Прежние исследования компрессии обращались к обратному направлению перевода, поскольку компрессия в данном случае считается необходимой в силу большей слоговой длины русского языка. Научная новизна статьи заключается в изложении и практическом подкреплении утверждения, что и при переводе с русского на английский язык компрессия также необходима.

Ключевые слова: синхронный перевод, речевая компрессия, факторы речевой компрессии, избыточность.

SPEECH COMPRESSION IN CONFERENCE INTERPRETING FROM RUSSIAN INTO ENGLISH (CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC SPEECHES BY V. PUTIN)

Research article

Piven (Nikitina) I.V.^{1, *}, Loginova А.А.²

¹ ORCID: 0000-0002-2916-6659;

² ORCID: 0000-0002-1022-2243;

^{1, 2} Nizhny Novgorod State Linguistics University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

* Corresponding author (irene.nikitina[at]gmail.com)

Abstract

The article aims to explore the factors of speech compression in conference interpreting from Russian into English and to analyze several illustrative cases of speech compression taken from V. Putin's special address at the Davos Agenda 2021 and his news conference in Geneva in June 2021. Earlier studies of speech compression addressed the reverse direction of translation (English → Russian), as speech compression generally occurs in response to greater syllabic length. The academic novelty of this research rests on the assumption that compression is unavoidable even when conference interpreters translate from Russian into English.

Key words: conference interpreting, speech compression, factors of compression, redundancy.

Introduction

Linn Visson, an American expert in international communication, notes that the ability to shorten and condense live speech is one of the major skills of an interpreter [2, P. 37]. This crucial skill generally referred to as speech compression (along with probabilistic forecasting) is considered the mainstay of conference interpreting. No wonder that many scholars that study translation theory, linguistics, psycholinguistics, and psychology focus on this translation aspect.

The article explores factors and techniques of speech compression in conference interpreting from Russian into English. The study materials include video recordings of the special address by Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Davos Agenda 2021 and his news conference in Geneva on June 16, 2021 both interpreted into English and their respective transcripts. Although speech compression is generally touched upon in the course of lectures on the theory of translation, there are few comprehensive studies and little focus on this crucial skill while training conference interpreters. Therefore, any issues related to speech compression in conference interpreting from Russian into English remain relevant and require further investigation.

Speech compression as a means of linguistic economy

It should be borne in mind that the mechanism of speech compression is psycholinguistic in nature. Linguistic economy per se is typical of oral communication. When transmitting a message from one language into another, compression may at times reach 60 %. It corresponds to one of the basic laws underpinning the way language systems function – the law of speech economy. Speech economy is a principle of building communication with minimal linguistic effort. From the behaviorism perspective, speech economy correlates with the least effort principle: maximum effect is achieved with minimum energy input [15, P. 317]. A similar conclusion is drawn by German linguist Thorsten Roelcke, whose concept of speech economy runs as follows: «…die der Sprache innewohnende Tendenz, mit möglichst wenigen formalen Mitteln, die jedoch eine große semantische Flexibilität aufweisen, auszukommen» (the language has an inherent tendency to make do with as few formal means as possible, which however show great semantic flexibility (translated from German by the authors hereof)) [12, P. 779]. He also emphasizes the importance of understanding the situation and the context that allow speakers to dismiss well-known information in the target text.

Proceeding from the linguistic logic, Anantoly F. Shiryaev describes speech compression as a way to scale down the message without seriously damaging the speaker's communicative task [11, P. 83]. Being a strategy of conference interpreting, speech compression implies synonymous replacement of certain parts of a source text with the ones that have reduced syllabic length and omission of some segments that either contain redundant information, carry information easily inferred from the communicative situation, or provide superfluous information in terms of the communication task. Choosing speech compression as their strategy, interpreters should analyze the original in order to unambiguously identify the author's intention and reproduce it in their translation with less linguistic effort.

Speech compression factors

When using speech compression, it is critical to take into account the specific nature of conference interpreting and the communicative situation. Having studied several classifications of speech compression factors in conference interpreting [3],[7],[9], we venture to propose the one of our own that rests on two comprehensive aspects: tight timing constraints faced by interpreters in the booth and information redundancy.

Despite high expertise of professional interpreters, some information is inevitably lost in the course of interpreting due toextreme working conditions, including acoustic and semantic «disturbances», time pressure, fast delivery. Timing constraints affect interpreters' performance and serve as prerequisites for semantic transformations such as speech compressionin order to reduce the original, save time and effort.

Speech compression is by no means a constant, it depends largely on the speaker's rate of delivery: the higher the rate, the more interpreters are constrained by language means. The speed of speech-thinking operations has its natural limits for every interpreter. Attempts to push the boundaries may lead to failing concentration, mistakes, and omissions of relevant information. Therefore, effective use of speech compression helps to avoid possible errors.

Even professional conference interpreters tend to speak at a moderate pace, since orientation in the source speech, search for an appropriate translation equivalent, and interpreting per se pose certain challenges. Fast delivery makes it harder to perceive and comprehend the source text let alone produce the target text. Therefore, not only tight timing constraints, but also attempts to facilitate speech processunderlie speech compression [11, P. 88]. Moreover, speech compression achieved through synonymic replacement or omission of some irrelevant segments helps interpreters «keep a distance» (phase delay) from the speaker or shorten it.

According to Vadim V. Sdobnikov, speech compression, when artfully performed under pressure of time, contributes to higher quality of interpreting, its optimization, including in terms of time required to find an interpreting solution [9, P. 126]. If such a transformation occurs automatically, i.e., an interpreter wastes no time evaluating the optimality of a particular decision, it savestime and effort spent on holding attention on the source text.

In view of the advantages of speech compression mentioned above, this mechanism cannot be overstated in terms of time factor.

However, even representatives of different approaches to conference interpreting concur that redundancy is the main factor for speech compression. Redundancy in the source text simplifies comprehension, allows for probabilistic forecasting, rapid semantic processing, and faster reproduction in the target language. Certain linguistic studies show that most languages are redundant, e.g., redundancy levels in Russian and English vary between 70 and 84 % respectively [5, P. 58]. Redundancy can be observed at all linguistic levels: phonetic (sound combinations typical of a particular language); morphological (multiple agreements in gender, number, case); lexical (pleonasms and tautologies); syntactic (cause and effect conjunctions in a string of logic that serves to describe cause and effect).

In the context of conference interpreting, it is common to speak about semantic redundancy or message redundancy, when the amount of information per symbol or unit diminishes due to general thematic conditionality, while the level of redundancy increases. Note that redundancy in special texts is much higher, since each of them is characterized by a certain set of lexical units and clichés that make it easier for interpreters to navigate through the source text, anticipate and forecast. Three types of redundancy can be singled out in conference interpreting that we consider as factors for speech compression:

1. System-conditioned redundancy arises from discrepancies between the structures of the source language and the target language. The first significant difference between the languages and the translation direction (Russian → English) that we analyze in this paper is syllabic length. Russian words are generally considered to be longer that English ones, which means that compression will occur naturally: the average syllabic length in Russian (7.5 characters) is almost three times bigger than in English [1]. Let's consider case (1) taken from the conference interpreting script of Vladimir Putin's special address at the Davos Agenda 2021 (all grammar, spelling, and wording in both source texts and target texts [8], [10], [13], [14] have been unedited):

(1) Действительно, трудно не заметить коренных трансформаций в глобальной экономике, политике, социальной жизни и технологиях. Пандемия коронавируса, которую Клаус только что упомянул, ставшая серьезным вызовом всему человечеству, лишь подстегнула, ускорила структурные изменения, предпосылки для которых уже были достаточно давно сформированы [10].

It is hard to ignore the fundamental changes in the global economy, politics, social life and technology. The coronavirus pandemic, that you mentioned, has become a major challenge to the mankind, has accelerated structural changes, whose preconditions have been already for many years [13].

The number of characters in the source text (301) exceeds that in the target text (243) by more than 19 %. This becomes possible due to the brevity of English words as compared to Russian ones (changes – трансформации, mankind – человечество, etc.)

Another specific aspect of Russian to English interpreting is the grammatical and lexical structure of the English language. In this respect, opportunities for compression arise for several reasons:

– Prevalence of structures with the verb to be:

(2) Наша общая ответственность сегодня заключается в том, чтобы избежать такой перспективы, похожей на мрачную антиутопию [10].	Our common responsibility today is to avoid such a future that resembles a grim dystopia [13].
(3) Реальность такова, что в мире сформировались, заявили о себе действительно разные центры развития, со своими самобытными моделями, политическими системами, общественными институтами [8].	The reality is that there are truly different studies of development in the world with their own distinctive models, political systems, social institutions [14].

– Verbs with the manner seme:

(4) И в этой связи подробнее остановлюсь на тех ключевых вызовах, которые, по моему мнению, стоят сейчас перед мировым сообществом [10].

And in this regard, I would like to elaborate on the key challenges that, in my opinion, are facing the world community today [13].

– Prevalence of personification:

(5) На разных международных форумах постоянно звучат призывы к инклюзивному росту, к созданию условий для достижения достойного уровня жизни каждого человека [10].

Various international forums havebeen invariably calling for inclusive growth, for creating conditions to ensure a decent life for everyone [13].

– Prevalence of adverbialization, which often leads to syntactic rearrangement of a sentence (e.g., a compound sentence turns into a simple one):

(6) Как ни парадоксально это звучит, но проблемы расслоения здесь, в развитых странах, оказались еще более глубокими [8].

Paradoxically, the problems of stratification here in developed countries have proven to be even more profound [14].

– Definite and indefinite articles:

(7) Было бы наивно предлагать какие-то универсальные чудодейственные рецепты решения обозначенных проблем [10].

It would be naive to offer some universal magic solutions for the problems [13].

– Wider use of abbreviations:

(8) Начиная с 1980 года глобальный ВВП по паритету покупательной способности в реальном выражении на душу населения удвоился [10].	Starting from 1980, the global GDP at PPP in real terms per capita has doubled [13].
(9) Клаус сейчас упомянул о моем вчерашнем разговоре с Президентом Соединенных Штатов и о продлении договора об ограничении стратегических наступательных вооружений [10].	Klaus just mentioned my yesterday's phone call, phone talk with the US President and we have agreed about extending the START agreement [13].

– Prevalence of elliptical structures:

(10) Третье. Человек должен быть уверен, что он получит качественную, эффективную медицинскую помощь, когда это требуется, что система здравоохранения в любом случае гарантирует ему доступ к современному уровню услуг [10].

Third, a person must be confident that they will receive high-quality and effective medical care when needed, that the healthcare system in any event will guarantee them access to most advanced services [13].

– Wider use of adverbial participial phrasesinstead of subordinate clauses:

(11) Безусловно, как я уже сказал, во многом выиграли развивающиеся страны, которые использовали растущий спрос на свои традиционные и даже новые товары [8].

Undoubtedly, as I’ve already said, developing countries gained much benefit from it using the growing demand for their traditional and even new products [14].

2. Text-conditioned redundancy is always present on the semantic level. Even laconic, professionally verified texts contain redundant information to the extent that allows interpreters to reduce or omit it, i.e., apply speech compression. Such redundancy comes in the forms of repetitions and duplication of some information, exhaustive explanations, digressions from the topic, and summarizations by the speaker:

(12) Да, если судить по цифрам статистики, то даже несмотря на глубокие кризисы 2008-го и 2020 годов, период последних сорока лет можно назвать успешным или даже сверхуспешным для мировой экономики [10].	Well, it’s true, we look at the statistics, despite the severe crises of 2008 and 2020, the past 40 years one can call extremely successful for the global economy [13].
(13) И только те страны, которые смогут добиться прогресса по этим четырем направлениям, обеспечат себе устойчивое и инклюзивное развитие [10].	Only those countries, that can make progress here, will ensure sustainable inclusive development [13].
(14) Отмечу роль России, Саудовской Аравии и Соединенных Штатов Америки, ряда других стран в стабилизации мирового энергетического рынка [10].	I want to stress the role played by Russia, Saudi Arabia and the US in stabilization of the world energy market [13].

In case (14), interpreters omit the homogeneous element «ряда других стран», since it indicates the speaker's intention to mention other countries that contributed to the stabilization of the world energy market, but the speaker failed to name them. Interpreters are believed to assume that this element is superfluous for recipients since participants of the Davos Forum are most probably aware of the current energy agenda and of the key energy market heavyweights (Iraq, Canada, UAE) that contributed to market stabilization.

Text-conditioned compression factors can include such clichés of official speeches as greetings, gratitude for an invitation or introduction, addressing the audience, etc.:

(15) Уважаемый господин Шваб, дорогой Клаус!Дорогие коллеги! [10]

Dear Colleagues, dear Klaus…[13]

Viktoria V. Pogodina considers parenthetic words, phrases, and various logical connectives in Russian texts as perfect sources for speech compression. They can often be dismissed while interpreting because Russian has a greater degree of explicitness compared to English [6, P. 114]. However, as we can see in case (16), interpreters often explicate such connectives in the target text as they are influenced by the source text and sometimes follow it too closely:

(16) Здесь важно только одно: нужно подходить к диалогу друг с другом по-честному…[8]

What is important, we should approach an honest manner to our dialogue… [14]

3. Situation-conditioned redundancystems from the speaker's references to some paralinguistic features of the communicative situation in conference interpreting. Situation-conditioned redundancy echoes subjective redundancy, which describes the level of text informativity for a particular recipient. Communicants who are well aware of the speech situation are expected to find any reminders of it in the text superfluous. Following Gennady V. Kolshansky, we reckon that the use of a language in a paralinguistic environment allows for a more prudent use of linguistic means [4, P. 17]. Consequently, any references made by the speaker to some paralinguistic factors can serve as sources for speech compression. Such redundant elements (e.g., reminding the audience about the name of the event and its hosts) can be dismissed without hampering understanding, the author's intention, or the message in general.

(17) Россией были предприняты, например, активные посреднические усилия, чтобы остановить вооруженный конфликт в районе Нагорного Карабаха, в который оказались вовлечены близкие нам народы и государства – Азербайджан и Армения [10].	And Russia engaged in active mediating efforts to put an end to the armed conflict in the Nagorno-Karabakh region [13].
(18) Сейчас об этом много говорят, особенно применительно к событиям, которые в Штатах происходили в предвыборной кампании [10].	Well, we talked a lot about that, taking into account what had happen in the US [13].

Omissions illustrated in cases (17) and (18) allow for a conclusion that interpreters obviously assumed that the audience was well aware of the world events in January 2021, when the Davos Agenda 2021 took place. Thus, any explanations about the riots in the Capitol or the parties to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict would be superfluous. Knowing the audience is a situation-conditioned factor relying on which interpreters can apply speech compression. However, it should be used sparingly, while interpreters should know the difference between fair use of speech compression and information gaps.

Conclusion

The three types of redundancy that we have singled out generally coexist in source texts and let interpreters opt for a particular technique of speech compression as the case may be.

Along with understanding paralinguistic features of a communicative situation, conference interpreters require thorough preparation and a wealth of background and special knowledge to successfully apply speech compression in their daily practice. It is the cognitive arsenal that helps to identify redundancy and compress the source text. Semantic and thematic associative series are formed in the interpreter's memory as a result of thorough research or much training.

However, even profound knowledge is not enough to apply compression. It is crucial to distinguish relevant information from the one that can be omitted without prejudice to the meaning. With less experienced conference interpreters, there is a tendency to closely follow the source text, overfocusing on the word form. However, the source text should be viewed primarily from the perspective of its meaning contained in the form of words or expressions. Since the requirements for preserving the author's style are minimal in conference interpreting, professional interpreters should indeed analyze the surface structure of the source text (words and grammatical forms), but then dive deeper in order to identify relevant information segments and connections between them. Such in-depth analysis is the only way for conference interpreters to learn apply speech compression properly.

Конфликт интересов Не указан.

Conflict of Interest None declared.

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