1. Introduction

The phenomenon of paronymy is observed in many world languages. The word paronymy can be considered as “name foreby” or “word foreby”. Paronyms are not isolated from the speech system, being to a certain extent a fact of the sound language. Being at the same time one of the components of the lexical system of the language, paronymy with all its inherent formal linguistic patterns takes a certain place in the structure. Although, this term causes an ambiguous opinion. In this regard, the definition of paronymy has not only controversial points, but also contradictory ones. Above all, it applies to the essence of paronymy. Some consider that paronymy is a linguistic phenomenon, others claim that paronymic relations do not play a role in terms of semiological system of language. Paronymy is a speech phenomena [1, P. 35]. L. P. Krysin considers that a paronym is “a word close to another word in its form and meaning” [2, P. 520]. According to Yu. A. Belchikov, paronyms are “words with not full sound similarity with full or partial semantic difference”. As noted by S. V. Vlasenko, “the definition of Yu. A. Belchikov, in contrast to the L. P. Krysin’s definition, includes important clarification that the correlation of the semantic difference with similar pronunciation is the primary element for identification the phenomenon of paronymy. It is not accidental that the definition includes a gradation of the semantic difference into “full” or “partial”, since such a gradation indicates the ambiguity of the phenomenon paronymy” [3, P. 26].

From our point of view, paronyms are close words, but not identical in sound and different in meaning. Also, one word is used instead of the other by mistake. For example, igәlaš (Mari “игылаш”, “to grow in clusters (about cereal, herbs, trees)”) – igәltaš (Mari “игылташ”, “to bully or to have fun at smb/smth”), adәraŋaš (Mari “адыраҥаш” dialect, “to grow”) — adәraŋdaš (Mari “адыраҥдаш”, dialect “let sprout”), asamatәn (Mari “асаматын”, “dreadful, terrific, hellish”) asamәn (Mari “асамын”, “anyways, haphazardly”).

We also agree with the opinion that “the basis of paronymic mixture of words are not only linguistic, but also psycholinguistic factors, since often in the individual speaker's mind similar sound of words leads to their semantic proximity, semantic blend word, leading to the unpremeditated use of one member of paronymic series instead of another. In our opinion, the limitation of paronyms only with the circle of single-root words does not take into account current situation in language and speech reality” [4, P. 133], [5, P. 53].

The phenomenon of paronymy has not been generally studied in the Mari language. The first reference of these words was mentioned in V. M. Vasiliev’s book “Grammar Materials of the Mari Language” in 1958. The author describes such words as “words of “similar sounding” form, i.e. those that are almost identical and the difference between them comes down to the opposition of simple vowels to corresponding palatal sounds and umlauts”. The author gives the following examples: “puro (Mari “пуро”, “come in”) pürö (Mari “пÿрö”, “home brew”), tor (Mari “тор”, “sorrel”) tör (Mari “тöр”, “equable”), mor (Mari “мор”, “a disease”) mör (Mari “мöр”, “a strawberry”), umәr (Mari “умыр”, “favorable” (weather)) ümәr (Mari “ÿмыр”, “life” ), šuraš (Mari: “шураш”, “to pound”) šüraš (Mari “шÿраш”, “to daub” and “cereal”), etc.

In addition, A. N. Kuklin [6] paid attention to the problem of paronymy in his article “Marij jәlmәn paronimijže (Mari “Марий йылмын паронимийже”, “Paronymy of the Mari Language”). The author points out that there are no researches in the Mari language devoted to the phenomenon of paronymy. The article defines paronyms, gives examples and criteria for differentiation paronyms from synonyms.

Also, this issue is considered in articles of E. G. Lastochkina [7], [8], [9].

2. Main results

This research is the first attempt at in-depth study of paronymy in the Mari language. We suggest principles to identify the essence of paronyms in the Mari language. They help determine the ability of consonant words to enter into paronymic relations with each other.

In our opinion, paronyms of the Mari language are characterized by the following features:

1) phonetic consonance;

2) etymological relationship of units in the lexical meaning;

3) difference in semantics;

4) belonging to the same part of speech (grammatical category);

5) the impossibility of interchanging in speech;

6) the possibility of erroneous confusion in speech due to the common root.

At the same time, it is necessary to notice that the last two criteria are likely features of paronyms’ “identification”, but they are not the principles of their definition.

Thus, paronyms are words with close phonetic consonance, but they differ in semantic terms. In paronymic words, the location of stress on the same syllable is another feature of Mari paronyms. For example, diplomant (Mari “дипломант”, “diploma winner”) diplomat (Mari “дипломат”, “diplomat”). The words differ with the suffixes “-ant” and “-at” and have different meanings.

Also, paronyms always refer to the same part of speech. For example, aruemdaš (Mari “аруэмдаш”, “to clean up, to put in order”) arueštaš (Mari “аруэшташ”, “to become neat”). Both words refer to the verb.

Abonement (Mari “абонемент”) 1. membership, 2. lending library abonent (Mari “абонент”, “member (of a library)”). Both words refer to the noun.

In the Mari language, in addition to lexical paronyms, there are phraseological paronyms. For example, viškәde vujd orәk (Mari “вишкыде вуйд орык”, “dumb”) / vujdorәk viškәdemәn (Mari “вуйдорык вишкыдемын”, “to become foolish”); vueš šuaš (Mari “вуеш шуаш”, “to grow up, to mature”) / vueš šušo (Mar: “вуеш шушо”, “adult”); vuj košarga (Mari: “вуй кошарга”, “someone will suffer, forfeit life”) / vujәm košartaš (Mari: “вуйым кошарташ”, “to kill”).

Phraseological paronyms, as well as lexical ones, are characterized by semantic parallel of components of a binominal grouping. The parallel of the meanings of paronymic phraseological units is revealed in the semantic independence of each of the component of the pair in the presence of similar features. It can be seen in approximately identical set of words included in paronymic unit, in the coincidence of phrasal stress.

As we can see, each component of a paronymic pair has in it approximately the same number of single-root words that are in different structural and grammatical relations with each other. It determines their differentiation in semantics. Therefore, the components of phraseological paronyms in the Mari language have their synonyms. For example, vueš šuaš (Mari “вуеш шуаш”) (kapeš šuaš, ušәm šәndaš, jol ümbak šogalaš, vuj-počәm pogaš (Mar: “капеш шуаш, ушым шындаш, йол ÿмбак шогалаш, вуй-почым погаш”)) “to grow up, to mature” / vueš šušo (Mari “вуеш шушо”) (kapeš šušo, ušәm šәndәše (Mari “капеш шушо, ушым шындыше”)) “an adult”; umšaške vüdәm podәlaš (Mari “умшашке вÿдым подылаш”) (jolәm pidaš, umšam petәraš (Mari “йолым пидаш, умшам петыраш”)) – “to be silent” / umšaške vüdym podәlšәla (Mari “умшашке вÿдым подылшыла”) (jәlme jomәn, jәlmәm kučaš, jәlmәm nelaš, jәlmәm purlaš (Mari “йылме йомын, йылмым кучаш, йылмым нелаш, йылмым пурлаш”)) “to lose the power of speech”.

Phraseological paronyms, as well as lexical ones, can include homonyms. For example, the first component of the phraseological paronym mutәm puaš (Mari “мутым пуаш”) has homonymous meanings: I. To assure someone of something. II. To allow somebody to make a report somewhere. Another example with the homonymous meaning unčәli vuya šogaltaš (Mari “унчыли вуя шогалташ”) I. To make a complete mess. II. To change fundamentally.

Phraseological paronyms, as well as lexical ones, cannot be replaced in speech: jәlme lәvәrge (Mari “йылме лывырге”) “someone speaks naturally, fluent” / jәlme lәvәrgen (Mari “йылме лывырген”) “someone easily began to talk”; šәrpәn šalataš (Mari “шырпын шалаташ”) “to destroy, to smash” / šәrpәn šalana (Mari “шырпын шалана”) “something is being destroyed”.

Each of the components of paronymic phraseological units expresses its own, semantically unambiguous idea. For example, uš pudәrana (Mari “уш пудырана”) “someone loses the ability to argue clearly” / ušәm pudәrataš (Mari “ушым пудыраташ”) “to think really hard about something, to worry”. Mom ojlet, üdәrem? (Mari “Мом ойлет, ÿдырем?”) Ala ušet pudәranaš tüŋalәn? avaže örmalgen jodeš. (Mari “Ала ушет пудыранаш тÿҥалын? аваже öрмалген йодеш”.) What are you saying, daughter? Or are you starting to lose your mind? mom asked in surprise. / Ušәm pudәrataš perna (Mari: “Ушым пудыраташ перна”.) I'll have to worry.

Among the paronymic phraseological units of the Mari language, the following structural types can be distinguished:

1. Paronymous phraseological units, differing in verbal forms: lomәžәš savәraš (Mari “ломыжыш савыраш”) “to destroy, to burn” / lomәzhәš savәrnaš (Mari “ломыжыш савырнаш”) “to burn, turn into ashes”; šәgәrәš puraš (Mari: “шыгырыш пураш”) “to get into a difficult, hopeless situation” / šәgәrәš purtaš (Mari “шыгырыш пурташ”) “to lead someone into difficulty, confusion”.

2. Paronymic phraseological units differing grammatical forms of nouns: lümžö vele (Mari “лÿмжö веле”) “so-so, about the mismatch of somebody or something with reality” / lümlan vele (Mari “лÿмлан веле”) “to create the surface impression, with the aim of diverting attention”; lümner šuktaralteš (Mari “лÿмнер шÿктаралтеш”) “a rumor about someone spreads” / lümnerәm šüktaš (Mari “лÿмнерым шÿкташ”) “to humiliate somebody”; uš pudәrana (Mari “уш пудырана”) “someone loses the ability to reason clearly” / ušym pudәrataš (Mari “ушым пудыраташ”) “to think hard about something, worry”.

3. Paronymic phraseological units, differing in the quantitative composition of lexical units: jәlmәm purlaš (Mari ‘йылмым пурлаш”) “to suddenly shut up” / jәlmәm toreš purlaš (Mari “йылмым тореш пурлаш”) “to die”; kiške gaj (Mari “кишке гай”) “evil, insidious” / kiške gaj liyaš (Mari ‘кишке гай лияш”) “to act insidiously, maliciously”; oŋ den oŋ vaš šogaš (Mari “оҥ ден оҥ ваш шогаш”) “to go one on the other, to move” / oŋ dene šogaš (Mari “оҥ дене шогаш”) “to defend someone steadfastly, courageously”.

4. Paronymic phraseological units formed according to the models noun + verb and noun + participle : vueš šuaš (Mari “вуеш шуаш”) “to grow up, reach adulthood” / vueš šušo (Mari “вуеш шушо”) “an adult who has reached adulthood”; omsam počaš (Mari “омсам почаш”) “to give someone complete freedom, access to somewhere” / omsam počmo (Mari “омсам почмо”) “the opportunity, freedom to do something are given”.

5. Paranymic phraseological units that differ both components: lümner šuktaralteš (Mari “лÿмнер шÿктаралтеш”) “a rumor about someone spreads” / lümnerәm šüktaš (Mari “лÿмнерым шÿкташ”) “to humiliate somebody”; čonәm nöltaš (Mari “чоным нöлташ”) “to inspire, encourage” / čon nöltәn (Mari “чон нöлтын”) “cheerfully, enthusiastically”.

6. Paranymic phraseological units, where the second component is represented using a comparison: kitaj pәrdәž (Mari “китай пырдыж”) – “a strong insurmountable barrier” / kitaj pәrdәžla (Mari “китай пырдыжла”) “to stand firmly adamantly on smth.”; lüdšö meraŋ (Mari “лÿдшö мераҥ”) “a coward / lüdšö meraŋ gaj (Mari “лÿдшö мераҥ гай”) “cowardly, timid”; muraš purәšo agәta (Mari “мураш пурышо агыта”) “about somebody who came to have fun at all ready” / muraš purәšo agәtan gaj (Mari “мураш пурышо агытан гай”) – “to be, to seem a little too diligent, at all to please somebody”; čәve lüdәktәš (Mari “чыве лÿдыктыш”) “an empty man, crank” / čәve lüdәktәš gaj (Mari “чыве лÿдыктыш гай”) “to dress funny, ugly or old-fashioned”.

Besides the noted, most regular types, there are irregular models of paronymic phraseological units in the Mari language, which are numerically limited and unproductive. For example, ik tuvәr dene šogen kodaš (Mari “ик тувыр дене шоген кодаш”) “to be left without everything, to lose everything” / ik tuvәr dene šogaltgen kodaš (Mari “ик тувыр дене шогалтен кодаш”) “to take everything, to rob”; ik vuj (Mari “ик вуй”) “lonely, has no family, loved ones” / ik vuya (Mari “ик вуя”) “lonely, without family, without childrenI”; ni šogalaš, ni šinčaš (Mari “ни шогалаш, ни шинчаш”) – “about the constrained state of someone” / ni šogaš, ni šinčaš (Mari “ни шогаш, ни шинчаш”) “cramped, nowhere to turn”; šem keče (Mari “шем кече”) “a difficult time” / šem kečәlan (Mari “шем кечылан”) “for a rainy day”; šәm kögön dene suralaš (Mari “шым кöгöн дене суралаш”) “to keep something in secret” / šәm kögön dene suralәmašte (Mari “шым кöгöн дене суралымаште”) “something is completely incomprehensible”.

Thus, phraseological units with different meanings are called paronymic in the Mari language. The identified paronymic phraseological units functioning in the Mari language can be divided into certain groups according to their lexical, semantic and stylistic features. The similar sound is explained by a number of reasons: the change of the verb in consonant phraseological units, the difference in the forms of the noun, the addition of comparison, the change of the verb by the participle, the difference in the number of components in phraseological units.

Another group of paronyms in the Mari language are syntactic paronyms. O. V. Vishnyakova gives such a definition to syntactic paronyms these are semantically independent consonant phrases that have single-root words in their composition, differing in word order and functions in a sentence, and thereby forming paronymic pairs. The defining feature of syntactic paronyms is the presence of approximately the same set of words in them.

In some cases changing the order of words leads to a change not only in syntactic, but also in semantic relations. It should be emphasized that syntactic paronyms, as well as lexical ones, are not interchangeable in the text; otherwise the meaning of the utterance will suffer.

Among the syntactic units in the Mari language, you can also find paronymic combinations, for example, fizike zakon (Mari “физике закон”, “physical laws”) / fizikәse zakon (Mari “физикысе закон”, “laws in physics”); praktike paša (Mari “практике паша”, “practical work”) / paša praktik (Mari “паша практик”, “work experience”); teŋәzәse kol (Mari “теҥызысе кол”, “sea fish”) / kol teŋәzәše (Mari “кол теҥызыште”, “fish in the sea”). These collocations are independent linguistic units and it is impossible to replace them in a sentence, because each of them has its own independent meaning. For example: Tudәn artist talantše dene kažne kugešna. (Mari “Тудын артист талантше дене кажне кугешна”, “Everyone admires his artistic talent”). / Tide artistәn talantšәm šuko eŋ pala. (Mari “Тиде артистын талантшым шуко еҥ пала”, “Many people know about the talent of this artist”). The words “artist” and “artistәn” denote different categories. In the first case, it indicates the type of talent, and in the second – belonging.

Consequently, arbitrary substitution of paronymic syntactic units in the text is excluded, since they carry different lexical meanings due to the peculiarities of their constructions.

Thus, the phenomenon of paronymy has a cognitive character, since paronyms are associated with cognitive processes of identification and differentiation. On the one hand, paronyms are considered as a semantic opposition, the components of which are most often connected in meaning. On the other hand, the coexistence of two or more units with a derivational similarity makes us look for differences between them [5, P. 63], [10, P. 447].

3. Conclusion

In the modern Mari language, the phenomenon of paronymy is observed at the lexical, phraseological and syntactic levels. Therefore, the Mari language has lexical, phraseological and syntactic paronymic units with specific lexical, semantic, structural and morphological features.

The additional file for this article can be found as follows: