REGARDING CONCEPTUAL DUALITY AND EVERYSEMY INHERENT IN THE Old ENGLISH WORD WULF

Научная статья
Выпуск: № 5 (5), 2012
Опубликована:
2012/10/30
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REGARDING CONCEPTUAL DUALITY AND EVERYSEMY INHERENT IN THE Old ENGLISH WORD WULF

Shamarova S.I.

The Ufa state academy of economy and service (Ufa, Russia)

 

Abstract

The current article presents the interpretation of contradictory attitude of peoples worldwide (including anglo-saxons) towards a predatory animal – wolf or a beast of battle on the basis of pagan mythology and Christian religion. It stems from the ancient archtype of the concept “Wolf semideity” or a sacred animal-totem with predominant negative connotation, which was retained in the phenomena of conceptual duality, syncretism and a temporary stage of transitional everysemy.

Key words: a semideity, a sacred animal, a beast of battle, a negative archtype, conceptual duality, syncretism, transitional everysemy.

The beasts of battle theme is quite popular in Germanic poetry. It’s a poetic trope in Old English and Old Norse literature and it embraces the wolf, the raven and the eagle accompanying any battle and warriors to feast on the bodies of the slain. The term originates from F.Magoun who first used it in 1955 [1]. Among the traditional animals of this motif the most fearsome and cruel is the wolf, a carrion-eater. Admittedly the wolf was the very epitome of slaughter and death.  For instance in the Battle of Maldon the poet identifies the Vikings with the wolf calling them waelwulfas “slaughter-wolves” as well as in Exodus the Egyptians are described as hare heorowulfas “hoary sword-wolves” in line with the  opinion of some scholars (G. Britton [2], C.Ward [3]). Though the wolf has strong associations with destruction and carrion, it’s physically described as grey only in two sources  The Battle of Finnsburh (6) and the Battle of  Brunanburh (64-65)  as well as lean in Judith.  It’s also necessary to mention the article regarding noises of battle  in Old English poetry by A.Jorgensen who states that  “the most frequently appearing battle noises are… the  bearing of weapons and a notation about the mental state of the warriors and the beasts of battle…  Noise is most directly associated not so much with violence itself as with its psychological conditions: the beasts of battle are images of bloodlust. The placing of the beasts  before the battle  and the stress on anticipation  are both distinctive  features in Old English poetry. It’s as eaters  of the slain rather than heralds of war that the beasts of battle usually appear in Old Welsh and Old Norse poetry” [4,322].  A.Jorgensen carries on  that ‘there is heavy irony in this depiction of bestial yelling as melodious or articulate sound…  This aspect of symbolism  of the beasts is particularly conspiculous in Elene.  Here the wolf not only sings (fyrdleoth agol  “sang an army song”, 27) but also (waelrune ne math “didn’t conceal the slaughter-runes”, 28); the wolf is presented as a privileged interpreter of battle, one who has the skill to read the signs and reveal their meaning to others” [ibid, 323]. Stemming from the above quotation it’s possible to suppose that the wolf in anglo-saxon culture is not just a beast of battle, but it can be regarded as  a semideity, a sacred animal-totem, the animal which has considerable power and authority over people.  In line with the opinion of N.Nikolayeva and V.Safronov  it’s unknown what image of the wolf (kind or evil) arose originally. In their book they consider detailed evolution and stages of development  and perception of the wolf by peoples of the whole  world as a deity.  On the basis of historical and archeological data Nikolayeva and Safronov came to the conclusion that the age of the indo-european Wolf-god made up IV-V thousand years and this god acted as the Wolf-pastor either like a human being or like a grey, white wolf. A white colour is the symbol of divinity and light. The Wolf was a totem for fore-euroasians  since all euroasians have myths  about the Wolf- ancestor [5, 97-100]. “In mythological notions of many peoples of Euroasia and Northern America the image of the Wolf  was basically connected with the cult of the chief of an armed detachment (or the god of war) and the forefather of a tribe” [6,10]. In the article of G.Bednenko   the image of the Wolf is closely connected with male military fraternities of many cultures and  peoples. Being associated with male military unions the Wolf becomes the symbol of  non- legality. There was a particular warrior’s magic in which the Wolf played a significant role.  The  Wolf’s howling and appearance were interpreted  as a warrior’s sign.  The Wolf is a beast of darkness, the underground world. He accompanies the dead to the kingdom of  afterlife.  In Christian cultures  the Wolf’s origin is believed to be of dual nature: the Wolf is created by devil  and animated by God” [7, 2-5].  Therefore, on the basis of the above  examples  one can observe sheer contradiction  and duality  with regard to the attitude of all peoples  to the Wolf in its perception  as kind and evil, a foe or a friend of people.  Such syncretism and indistinct differentiation  of notions,  namely concrete and abstract, general  and particular are inherent in the thinking of ancient and medieval people [8, 10]. As for the anglo-saxon culture and religion, in our opinion  the Wolf is a semideity  which takes a peculiar status. This fact, retained as conceptual duality and syncretism, resulted in  the phenomenon of a temporary, intermediate stage of everysemy  of Old English words wulf “he-wolf”, wylf, wylfen(n) “she-wolf”.  In the Anglo-Saxon dictionary of  J.Bosworth and  T.Toller there are two basic meanings of the word wulf in the item: 1. A wolf as an animal  2. Applied to a cruel person, which is quite disputable.  We think that it’s necessary to  make the following amendments:  1. A wolf as an animal in pagan comprehension that is a semideity, a sacred beast-totem, a warrior. 2. A wolf as an animal in Christian comprehension that is a devil, a monster, a criminal. It’s required to focus on a particular, unique  word-collocation  ‑ wulfheafod-treow   literally  (wolf’s head-tree) ‑“a  cross”.  However, such a meaning is accompanied with a question mark in the dictionary item which means that Bosworth and Toller are not sure of their interpretation  of the meaning. For comparison they refer to the Old Saxon compound noun  warag- treo “a cross” as well as to the Old English composite wearg-treow “an accursed tree, a gibbet, a cross” [9, 1280]. There are only two cases of the above mentioned word usage which are registered  in the Anglo-Saxon dictionary of Bosworth-Toller among all Old English manuscripts. For example,  in the Codex Exoniensis (or the Exeter Book) of Old English poetry: Ealle naman habbaᵭ anne, wulfheafed-treo  (437,23) “All names have one (the only) name – wolf’s head-tree”.  We believe that it’s neither a gibbet nor a  cross but a relic case retained in an Old English written language, which confirms a pre-eminent status of the Wolf in the anglo-saxon society . It’s likely to  be the so -called “wolf’s tree” or a ritual pole on which a wolf was hung to be sacrificed. Such a heathen rite is set out in the articles of G.Bednenko and V.Ivanov. “Wolves which were hung on the wolf’s tree (Scandinavian vargtre)  were sacrificed to the supreme god Odin (Othinn). A wolf was hung even  opposite Othinn’s Valhalla (the Hall of the Dead)  [7, 5]. “Wolves, dogs as well as people who turned into wolves (werewolves)   were sacrificed to gods of war (particularly to Oᵭinn)” [6, 12]. However here we encounter a contradictory attitude towards the Wolf: he is feared by anglo-saxons , at the same time he is  venerated and sacrificed to the supreme anglo-saxon god Woden (protogermanic Wodanaz, Scandinavian Odin, Oᵭinn).  The Wolf is a frequent figure  in battle scenes . Early Old English manuscripts testify that the Wolf is definitely admired by anglo-saxons judging from numerous proper names and toponyms which confirm  a predominant standing of heathen beliefs in early anglo-saxon society. For instance:  Beorhwulf, Berhtulf (beorht “bright, shining”, wulf  “a wolf”); Aeᵭelwulf (ᴂᵭel  a “noble” wolf);  Ealdwulf ( eald  an“old, great, exalted” wolf);  Wulfric (ric  a “force, power” wolf);  Wulfgar ( gar “a spear” wolf);   Cynewulf (cyne a “royal” wolf) etc.  A man quite often was named Wulf.  We agree with the opinion of  D.Harper that  in Germanic folklore  the Wolf was associated with young warriors [10 ,1]. It’s possible to come across such compound nouns in Old English texts  as heoru-wulf “a savage wolf, a warrior”; heoru-wearh “a cruel, bloody  wolf”;  here-wulf “a war(army) wolf, a warrior”; hilde-wulf “a war-wolf,  a warrior”; wᴂl-wulf “a war-wolf,  a warrior, a fierce cannibal”. Obvious duality and contradictory attitude to the Wolf can be found  both in early (Maxims I ) and late ( Cadmon’s Paraphrase of the Holy Writ) Old English works of poetry. In the “Maxims I”:  1.  Wineleas wonsalig mon genimeth him wulfas  to geferan  felafᴂcne  deor, oft hine  se gefera  sliteᵭ (145). “A man without friends  takes wolves as  his companion , crafty beasts – this companion  often tears him away”.  2.  Ne huru  wᴂl wepeᵭ  wulf  se grᴂga, morᵭorcwealm mᴂcga (150). “A grey wolf weeps not only about  the slain in a battle, the murder(death) of a person”. Here we can see  an apparent friend and protector of people  in the image of  the Wolf unlike the previous one in which he is depicted as a dangerous and perfidious foe. In the “Paraphrase of the Holy Scripture”:  Hwonne of heortan hunger oᵭᵭe  wulf sawle and sorge abregde (104 ). “When from my heart hunger or wolf shall tear a soul or sorrow”… In this instance  one can see syncretism of positive and negative attitude towards the Wolf. On the one hand, the Wolf is compared to hunger  (in a negative sense) and on the other hand, the Wolf can tear sorrow or a soul at the same time (in a positive sense). The Wolf is  perceived by anglo-saxons as the symbol of force and power  which a  human life and death depend on. The Wolf governs the course of all battles. The instance from  a well-known poem “Judith”: …hilde gesᵭged on ᵭam sigewonge, sweordum geheawen wulfum to willan (290-95). “(a heathen legion) on the field of the battle  slain with a sword at the will of wolves”. ..  Another instance from the poem “Solomon and Saturn”: Heo oferwigeᵭ wulf, hio oferbideᵭ stanas …(315). “He wins a wolf, he outlives stones…”  The following example from the  poem “Wanderer”  confirms an essential function of the Wolf as a semideity: it’s not a mere sacred beast, it’s the master of the underground kingdom of the dead, that is hell. It is the Wolf that shared a person with death : Sumne fugel oᵭbᴂr ofer heanne holm, sumne se hara wulf deaᵭe gedᴂlde… (980-85). “A bird brought someone over a deep sea, a grey wolf shared someone  with death…”

Thus, it’s possible to state that the Wolf is the master and patron of wars and hostilities, death and the underground world of the dead, force, power and courage on the whole like for many peoples of the world. After Christian conversion the attitude towards the Wolf has drastically altered on a very negative basis, comparing it to a devil and its gradual objective perception  as an ordinary  beast which has to live in the woods.  In a famous poem “Christ” the Wolf is called accursed like a devil: Hafath se awyrgda wulf tostenced, deor daedscua (255). “An accursed wolf possesses, a destroyed beast, which acts in darkness”. In a prose piece of the manuscript “Shrine”: Se biscop cwᴂᵭ to ᵭᴂm hᴂᵭuan Kasere: ne gang ᵭu na on Godes hus; thu hafast besmitene handa and ᵭu eart deofles wulf (58,9). “This bishop said to that heathen emperor:  Don’t go to God’s house(church); you have stained(dirty) hands and you are  devil’s wolf”.  We can see that a heathen emperor is called  a devil’s wolf that is a cruel, malicious person.  In our opinion  such perception of the Wolf like a devil  could arise due to the influence of Old Scandinavian mythology. One can remember that  the World Wolf Fenrir devoured the supreme god Oᵭinn and other gods. In mythology  Fenrir is the name of a wolf popularly translated “a swamp wolf” but probably originally meaning  “a wolf of hell”. According to S.Bugge, the author of the Home of the Eddic Poems,  this name can’t mean “a swamp wolf”. He believes  that Fenrir arose under the influence of Christian conceptions of the devil as lupus infernus combined with tales of the Behemoth  and the beast of  the Apocalypse  and was altered in the form in accordance with popular Old Norse etymology.   He compares Old Norse fern from Latin infernus to Old Saxon fern which was derived from Latin infernum [11, 3]. In late prose works (in the Old English Leechdom) some contradiction towards the Wolf is still preserved. On the one hand, the Wolf is treated as an ordinary beast like others   and on the other hand, its healing power and  protective properties for rendering help to people are singled out (in charms, incantations, recipes). In the Leechdom:  Gif ᵭu hafast mid ᵭe wulfes hrycghᴂr and tᴂglhᴂr ᵭa ytemestan on siᵭ fᴂte butan fyrhtu  ᵭu ᵭone siᵭ  gefremest ac se wulf sorgaᵭ ymbe his siᵭ (I, 360, 20). “If you have with you on a journey hairs from a wolf’s back and from  the tip of its tail, without fear you will perform  the journey, but the wolf will have trouble about his journey.”  It’s also very important to dwell on obvious duality in Christianity with regard to the Wolf. On the one hand, the Wolf is treated like a devil: a prominent anglo-saxon preacher and theologist Wulfstan (wulf “a wolf”  and  stan “a stone”) named the devil  a werewulf  (“a man-wolf”)[10, 1]. On the other hand,  in the Life of St. king of East Anglia Edmund the martyr there was a wolf sent  through the guidance of God to protect the head  of king Edmund beheaded by scandinavian heathen pirates against other animals.  The grey wolf watched over that head  and had the head clasped between his two paws.  When people found the holy head, the wolf followed along with the head  until they came to the settlement and then turned back to the woods (from the preface to the anglo-saxon version  by a famous anglo-saxon preacher and scholar Aelfric  of  Eynsham) [12, 2-3].

To sum up, in the semantic structure of the Old English word wulf there are three basic components. The stem is the archtype “The Wolf-semideity”, a sacred animal-totem combining good and evil with predominant negative connotation (a devil, an evil spirit, a criminal, a predatory beast).  The second structural component is the meaning “a wolf as an animal”, which embraces  the core of the conceptual sphere.  The third peripheral component  derived from  the second  one is a figurative meaning  “a man-wolf, a warrior-wolf, a foe, a cruel, malicious person”. All the three components are interrelated and interchangeable which is conditioned by their dependence  on the archtype “The Wolf-semideity-totem”  incorporating  the notions of good and evil. Under its semantic status the word wulf is everysemantic  depending on a language context.  This kind of everysemy can be defined as transitional  everysemy  since it characterizes a temporary, intermediate  stage of development  of the concept “Wolf”. Respectively, this transitional everysemy  is a temporary phenomenon  with regard to gradual development of  monosemantisation  of the word wulf.  The crucial extralinguistic factors on the basis of hermeneutics  which help to determine  the usage of the  relevant structural components  in the Old English texts  are pagan and Christian beliefs of anglo-saxons. The Old English words wylf and wylfen(n)  are rarely used as compared to  wulf,  therefore, conceptual duality and  syncretism are not  typical for them.  

REFERENCES

1. Magoun 1955 – F. P. Magoun.  The theme of the beasts of battle in anglo-saxon poetry.  Neuphilologische  Mitteilungen  56.

2. Britton 1965 – G.C. Britton. The characterization of the Vikings  in the Battle of Maldon. Notes and Queries  210 (March 1965).

3. Ward 2012 – C.Ward. The beasts of  battle : wolf, eagle and raven in Germanic poetry.  URL: http://www.vikinganswerlady.com/beasts.shtml.

4. Jorgensen 2012‑ A.Jorgensen. The trumpet and the wolf:  noises of battle in Old English poetry. URL: http://www.google.ru/search?sourceid=navclient&hl=ru&ie=UTF.

5. Nikolayeva, Safronov 1999 – N.A.Nikolayeva, V.A.Safronov.  Sources of Slavonic and Euroasian mythology. Moscow, 1999.

6. Ivanov 1991‑ V.V. Ivanov. The wolf. Myths of peoples of the world.  Vol. I. Moscow, 1991. URL:  http://ecdejavu.ru/w/Wolf.html.

7.  Bednenko 1994-2002 – G.B.Bednenko.  The wolf’s image for indoeuropeans.  URL: http://nentis.itersuum.ru/mythology/wolf.html.

8. Gourevich 1972 – A.Y.Gourevich.  Categories of medieval culture.  Moscow, 1972.

9. Bosworth, Toller 1991‑ J. Bosworth, T.N. Toller. An Anglo – Saxon Dictionary. New York, 1991.

10. Harper 2011‑ D. Harper. Wolf and Werewolf. URL: http://www.collasius.org/LITERATUR/04-HTML/wolf-werewolf.htm.

11. WN 2011‑ Wolf Names‑ meaning, origin, etymology. URL: http://www.20000-names,com/wolf names.htm .

12. MS 2011 – Medieval Sourcebook: abbo of Fleury: the martyrdom of St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, 870. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/870abbo-edmund.html.

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